1. Introduction

Research in psychometrics and human resources management has produced significant results during the last decades, particularly with the advent of information technology and software engineering. Computer Academy is now in a position to utilize intelligent software, in order to analyze the personality of a candidate and match this to several sectors of the economy and the society generally. The questionnaires and inventories designed by Computer Academy provide reliable services for strategic decision making and national planning, the educator, the employer, as well as the individual who recognizes the value of "know thyself" and self-awareness of Socrates, aiming to become a better person.

The tests are based on state of the art theory and practice documented in international scientific Journals. They are fully automated in that the software records the subject's responses in real-time, analyses these and produces a report without human (counsellor) intervention. The report then forms the basis for all decision-making and consultancy services. The subject is prompted by a computer program to answer to a series of well-defined questions regarding a) activities, b) preferences, c) intellectual tasks, d) beliefs, e) values, f) motivations, g) logical reasoning, h) verbal, numerical, and mechanical reasoning. Once all the questions are answered, another software module, which is actually an expert system, takes over and proceeds to analyse the answers by utilising modern psychometric and statistical methods, classifying in effect the personality of the individual.

The reports produced by the software contain analytical, quantified results and conclusions regarding the personality of the subject, supporting decision-making related to: a) vocational and career counselling, b) aptitude measurement, c) personnel selection, d) assessment of employees and executives, e) personnel development, f) performance appraisal, g) attitude measurement, h) management development, i) employee counselling, j) human engineering, k) productivity analysis, l) administrative skills measurement, m) public relations, n) psychological assessment and support.

We, as Computer Academy, emphasise that the questionnaires presented here are not I.Q. (Intelligent Quotient). Several eminent scientists, including Kamin, have already spoken against I.Q. tests for various reasons, including the fact that they are knowledge-dependent rather than personality-dependent, giving particular emphasis on the time taken by the subject to respond to specific questions.

In the following Chapters we describe briefly the background and the theoretical framework of psychometrics and vocational counselling, paying particular attention to research findings related to the CAPS (Computer Academy Psychometric Series) tests, developed by Computer Academy Ltd. The CAPS tests aim to analyse the personality, aptitudes and abilities of an individual, by measuring several specific factors which are then used to describe the subject in detail. The ultimate objective is to identify inclinations, aptitudes and abilities that are most congruent with the personality of an individual (candidate for a specific job or work environment).

2. Aims, objectives and decision making

The psychometric factors adopted by Computer Academy are grouped under broad and specialised internationally known families and the vocational profile produced contains a detailed analysis of the personality of the individual, which is compared with others of the same age and sex. The information contained in the individualised profile helps the subject discover hidden skills, trends and generally unknown features of his personality, which can then form the basis for career planning and decision making.

Making a decision is one thing, planning for its actualisation and its consequences is another. To this end, it becomes necessary to identify all necessary actions, putting these in an operational order that aims at smooth transitions from one action to the next. Besides, we should be in a continuous state of alert, keeping track of dates by which the planning is accomplished, while tackling unforeseen side-effects.

Professional success and career advancement require an enlightened attitude from the individual and ability to adapt to a continuously changing work environment, which in turn requires life-long learning. The well-known national commission of employers in the U.S.A. identified "Works with Diversity" as being an essential skill for the U.S.A. to succeed as a high-performance workplace in the 21st century. Research carried out showed that working adults need skills to:

1. Understand the concerns of our associates and members of other ethnic and gender groups.
2. Base impressions on an individual's behaviour rather than on predefined stereotypes.
3. Work well and socialise with people that have different ethnic, social, or educational backgrounds.
4. Understand one's own culture and traditions as well as those of others and how they differ.
5. Respect the rights of others and try to help them make cultural adjustments where necessary.

At the end of it all, the important thing is to assess and evaluate the situation every time, ensuring, above all, the overall benefit gained from a decision or an action. This of course requires convincing documentation and argumentation.

In conclusion, the major steps involved for correct decision-making are the following: 1) defining and setting up of aims and objectives, 2) collection of available details (data and information), 3) clarification of the situation and of all available details and minimization of the degree of uncertainty, 4) analysis and correlation of all the details, 5) quantification of the available details, where appropriate, 6) identification of all alternative routes and decisions, 7) risk analysis and assessment for each alternative route and decision, 8) actual decision.

3. Vocational guidance

The combination of the words "vocational" and "guidance" first appeared in print, according to the best evidence available, in a report dated May 1, 1908, by Frank Parsons, director of the Vocational Bureau of Boston, Massachusetts. The Vocational Bureau of Boston in 1924 used Parson's report and stated that vocational guidance is the giving of information, experience and advice in regard to choosing an occupation, preparing for it, entering it and progressing in it. Several decades later, these concepts have remained the same but more important than ever, particularly with the advent of information technology.

When talking about vocational counselling we have to recognise two sets of differences. The first set is about the differences among individuals - differences in physical characteristics, general intelligence, personality traits, special limitations, special aptitudes and other attributes. The second set is the fact that there are thousands of job opportunities and requirements for these jobs. The problem of vocational guidance is that of assisting an individual who possesses certain personality characteristics, preferences, inclinations, aptitudes and abilities to select the career most suitable for him, and then help him to prepare for it, enter upon it and progress generally. In other words, we can see that vocational counselling is a series of actions that continue for a very long period of time in our lives.

4. Origins of psychometry

Psychometry is defined (The Shorter Oxford Dictionary) as the faculty of divining, from physical contact or proximity only, the qualities or properties of an object, or of persons or things that have been in contact with it. More specifically, psychometry is about the measurement of the duration and the intensity of mental states or processes. The origins go back further in time. The Greek philosopher Hippocrates (460-370 B.C.) was in fact the first to talk about personality types, concluding that humans can be classified as: Sanguine, Phlegmatic, Choleric, and Melancholic.

Employers have been assessing prospective workers since the beginning of civilisation, and in all probability have had consistent and replicable techniques for doing this. The earliest recorded examples of examinations for this purpose are from China at the time of Confucius, where there was a rigidly controlled and standardised system of examinations for the civil service. The pattern set down then - of a "syllabus" of material, which should be learned, and "examined" to test the attainment of this knowledge - has not changed in framework for over 2000 years and had been extensively used in Europe, Asia and Africa even before the industrial revolution.

Francis Galton (1883) established an anthropometric laboratory at South Kensington Exhibition. It was a place where, as Paul Kline states, persons attending the exhibition could have their faculties tested for three pence, and the data generated from this and other studies provided the raw material for the development of the tools of the trade. It was also Galton's idea to use the normal curve as a model for the distribution of test scores. Karl Pearson, a colleague of Galton, developed the mathematical correlation and added multiple and partial correlation coefficients and a chi-square test to the already available techniques. Charles Spearman (1904) perfected the procedures for the analysis of more complex correlation matrices. Al Binet (1904) was the first to apply a test to diagnose children with mental disorders. Woodworth (1914) designed the so called Personal Data Sheet for the United States Army. Between 1914 and 1918 the USA army used the so called "alpha" test to diagnose soldiers with a high risk of collapsing in battle. Terman (1916) proposed IQ (Intelligent Quotient) tests. Thurstone (1938) proposed a multifactorial analysis. Hathaway & McKinley (1941-1960) developed the Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory (MMPI), for the diagnosis of psychopathological disorders. Cattell (1943) developed the 16PF (Primary Factors) personality test. Zipf (1949) presented his theory on human behaviour and the principle of least effort, which had a profound influence on ranking techniques. Mandelbrot (1952) presented an information theory for statistical matching of messages and coding. Guilford (1959-1980) proposed different types of intelligence, including memory, assessment, schema analysis, symbol analysis, understanding concepts, etc. Beck (1961) developed a test for clinical psychology. Kuder (1970) developed the well-known preference record, which was in fact the first test to propose specific professions for an individual. Yannakoudakis (1973) was the first programmer of psychometrics in U.K. to computerise the Kuder test, using punched cards. Strong and Campbell (1971) developed a test for occupational preferences. Kamin (1974) rejected the use of IQ tests. Eysenck (1980-1990) proposed three basic types of personality: (a) Extrovert-Introvert, (b) Neurotic-Stable, and (c) Psychoticism. Holland (1953-1995) developed the RIASEC scale (Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional), which is now the most widely used theory for vocational choices.

5. The need for organised vocational counselling

Vocational counselling is essential for society and the individual for several reasons. It has been noted that a lot of young people enter wage-earning occupations without considering their suitability, causing various serious problems. They usually choose a profession quite randomly, influenced by what they see or hear or what they believe they like. Low self-esteem is a major problem these days, while Socrates' advice "knowing-thyself" seems as far away as ever. Also, individuals shift from one occupation to another quite frequently, often without realising the problem or the reasons for failure to appreciate the world around them.

Taking vocational decisions on the basis of purely incidental influences, such as a quick profit, a friend's remark, ease in getting a particular job and other similar reasons, and moving from one work environment to another, individuals come face to face with the problem of failure in the long run. The financial loss in these cases is much worse than it appears on the surface. It is not only the cost of education and preparation for entering a profession, but also the psychological stress felt by the individual, who frequently becomes disappointed and unable to perform his/her best.

Computer Academy has invested a great deal in giving solutions to the aforementioned problems regarding personnel evaluation and assessment, vocational and occupational guidance and is proud for the services the company has already offered to thousands of employers, employees, staff, and students.

Finally, we quote Professor Yannakoudakis "It is sad to discover that there are lots of people around us, offering "services" to others, doing what they ordinarily do not prefer to do. What's more, they have found themselves in this situation by some contingent state of affairs, which breeds unhappiness and stress, imposing great demands upon the individual who is called to perform tasks that are far beyond his inherent aptitudes, abilities and competencies. Besides, when a person practises a profession that is not in congruence with his personality, quite frequently he distracts others around him, resulting in lower productivity and loss for the whole nation."